Providentia

Looking at Torture

There has been considerable debate in recent years over the definition of torture but the controversy has focused primarily on the types of procedures used, and not the other factors that contribute to traumatic stress.  A  paper published in the April 2009 issue of the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry  examined the interaction between different stressors in dealing with torture.  The paper combined two studies: the first involving 204 former Turkish prisoners who had been tortured during detention  and the second dealt with 230 torture survivors in former Yugoslavia countries.  Information on background, political affiliations, and those factors that determined severity and psychological impact of captivity were collected through interviews.  An analysis of 46 captivity stressors measured by an Exposure to Torture Scale identified meaningful stressor clusters, which suggested that multiple detention procedures were used in combination to increase their impact. Captivity stressors included sexual torture, physical torture, humiliation, psychological intimidation techniques.  deprivation of basic needs, and sensory discomfort.  Perceived torture severity was found to be related to ’cruel, inhuman, and degrading’ treatments (CIDT) but not to physical torture.  Posttraumatic stress disorder related to war-related captivity, deprivation of basic needs, sexual torture, and exposure to extreme temperatures, isolation, and forced stress positions as opposed to physical torture.  CIDT increased posttraumatic stress disorder risk by 71%.  Fear- and helplessness-inducing effects of captivity and CIDT appear to be the major determinants of perceived severity of torture and psychological damage in detainees. Considerations on what constitutes torture need to take into account the contextual processes in a captivity setting that increase the risk of prolonged mental harm.

For more information.

Former Prison Psychologist Jailed

A former prison psychologist has pleaded guilty to aiding the escape prison of an inmate she counseled and with whom she had an affair.   Erin Danto, 35, was sentenced to a two year sentence to be served in a provincial reformatory after pleading guilty to charges of breach of trust and being an accessory after the fact to the escape of imprisoned killer, Andrew Wood.  After her sentencing, Danto simply said, "“I’m sorry,” when given a chance to speak.  Charges of obstructing justice and being a party to the offence of escaping lawful custody were withdrawn as part of a plea bargain struck with prosecutors.

After Wood fled minimum-security Frontenac Institution on June 13, Wood and Danto were caught together in a car 30 kilometers north of Kingston on the evening of June 18.  Police had been maintaining surveillance of Danto after she left her home.  It was later determined that she had supplied Wood with a cellphone and camping equipment and had set up the campsite where Wood spent five nights after his escape.

“The administration of justice suffered great harm because of what you did,”  Mr. Justice Rommel Masse said, before he sentenced Danto this afternoon.  “You threw it away,” he said. “You brought dishonour on your profession, you brought dishonour on your family and yourself and you brought disrepute on the administration of justice.” 

Her lawyer, John Ecclestone, called a client "a good  and decent person" who is paying dearly for a mistake.  Wood has been sentenced to an additional three years in prison.  He is already serving a life sentence with no chance of parole for fifteen years.

For more information.

.

Going Berserk

They were the most fearsome shock troops Europe had ever known.

From the late eighth to the early eleventh century, most Europeans lived in fear of the Vikings who could strike at any point along Europe's coastlines in their warships. Although the Viking reputation for fierceness was legendary, the most terrifying of them all were the berserkers.

The actual origin of the word is open to dispute and may have referred to the hair shirts that the berserkers wore into battle (the term literally means "bear fur shirt"). They were a very special breed of warriors who became gripped with "berserker rage" and often plunged into battle without fear or armour. Known as bärsärkar-gångbb ("berserker-path"), the fit of madness that descended on berserkers caused them to be capable of almost superhuman strength and endurance. In addition to using swords, berserkers were also famed for ripping into their opponents with their teeth and fingernails. Their custom of wearing wolf or bearskins fed into many of the superstitions of the time and gave them the reputation of being werewolves or warriors possessed by an animal's spirit. Some authorities suggested that berserkers were part of a cult dedicated to the god Odin (they were commonly known as the "chosen ones of Odin") and added to their fierce image by dying their bodies, drinking wolf or bear blood, and wearing animal masks.

Descriptions of bärsärkar-gång tend to be unreliable since there were so few eyewitness accounts. According to one fascinating article on bärsärkar-gång, "This fury, which was called berserkergang, occurred not only in the heat of battle, but also during laborious work. Men who were thus seized performed things which otherwise seemed impossible for human power. This condition is said to have begun with shivering, chattering of the teeth, and chill in the body, and then the face swelled and changed its color. With this was connected a great hot-headedness, which at last gave over into a great rage, under which they howled as wild animals, bit the edge of their shields, and cut down everything they met without discriminating between friend or foe. When this condition ceased, a great dulling of the mind and feebleness followed, which could last for one or several days". Suffice it to say, berserkers were not fun to be around.

Berserker war bands seemed unstoppable and became the basis of numerous sagas and legends (which is why"going berserk" is still part of our language). Just about every Viking king had his own group of berserker bodyguards and used berserker gangs to expand territory. Berserker rage was hardly limited to the battlefield however. Vikings who were susceptible to barärsärkar-gång often became uncontrollable in any situations that caused them to lose their tempers. Viking warriors who committed murder or rape while affected by berserker rage were executed or exiled. By the eleventh century, even Viking societies had enough of their special warriors and the berserkers were banned from Iceland and Norway. Organized berserker bands were eventually outlawed and barärsärkar-gång became virtually unknown by 1200.;

Later sagas and legends often tended to portray berserkers as being superhuman and, at times, even supernatural. Descriptions of their ferocious nature were likely exaggerations (there were no real berserkers for comparison). One 13th century saga described a berserker named Otrygg who "feared neither fire nor sword" but who was killed after a Christian warrior struck him with a crucifix before cutting off his arm with a sword. The Ynglinga Saga told of berserkers who "went into battle without armor, like mad dogs or wolves, biting their shields, strong like bears or bulls, mowing down everything in their path, immune to fire and iron". Propaganda or not, it certainly made a good story.

There have been different theories relating to bärsärkar-gång and what triggered the incredible berserker rage. The most commonly accepted theory relates to the use of the fly agaric mushroom (amanita muscaria). According to one source, the mushrooms would be fed to sacred reindeer where the mushroom. After the reindeer metabolized the mushrooms, the urine became a powerful natural amphetamine which the berserkers would drink just before going into battle (don't try this at home kids). Modern researchers examining amanita muscaria poisoning have reported episodes of irrational violence, profuse sweating, disorientation, vertigo, and a subsequent "crash" very similar to accounts of berserker range. Other psychoactive substances that have been suggested include bog myrtle, bufotenin, or just plain alcohol. Although explanations such as epilepsy, hysteria, or genetic predisposition to violence have also been suggested, the lack of any modern berserkers for comparison makes the question academic.

It's tempting to suggest that bärsärkar-gång may have been a culture-specific psychosis similar to amok syndrome but, again, we'll never know for sure. While there is a recognized psychiatric condition known as episodic dyscontrol syndrome characterized by episodes of impulsive violence and irrational behaviour, there's no way to link it to bärsärkar-gång. It's ironic that countries populated by descendants of the same berserkers who once raged across Europe now have some of the lowest rates of violence in the world. Whether their ancestors would approve or not is another story.

Does Knowing About Medical Treatment Affect Outcome?

Any medical treatment has 2 components, the first being the specific effects of the treatment itself, the second, the knowledge that the treatment is being performed (the placebo effect). So far, the placebo effect has been studied by eliminating the specific effects of the therapy through the administration of a dummy treatment. A recent issue of Prevention and Treatment outlines a study comparing the effectiveness of hidden medical treatment (lack of patient knowledge that the treatment was being  given)  and open treatment (full disclosure).   Using multiple patient samples (including Parkinson's disease, post-operation patients)  and a sample of healthy volunteers, all study participants were informed ahead of time that analgesic treatment either would or would not be administered and that they would not be informed as to their treatment status.  All experimental protocols were consistent with the Declaration of Helsinki.  Medications studied included morphine, diazepam, propranolol, and atropine.  Statistical analysis comparing open and hidden administration showed that the hidden administrations of pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies are less effective than the open ones  across the range of medical populations studied for both pain and anxiety.   In particular, diazepam was found to be totally ineffective when covertly administered.  Overall, treatments appear more effective when they are openly carried out although it remains unclear whether this is de to expectation of treatment outcome or other confounding factors.  Perceived interruption of treatment (whether pain medication, diazepam, or subthalamic stimulation) also produces a more significant worsening of symptoms than a hidden interruption does.  The authors stress the need for a better understanding of the role of psychological factors  in medical treatment.

For more information.

Child Soldiers

When Charles Taylor goes into the docket at the International Criminal Court in the Hague, he will face charges of crimes against humanity for his brutalities both as a rebel leader and as President of Liberia. Among those looking on in their quest for justice will be Taylor's most innocent victims, the estimated 15,000 children who were forced to fight in Liberia's bloody regional war.

Starting in the 1990s, Taylor first developed a military model that was since exported over the border into neighbouring Sierra Leone: raiding villages, killing adults, and kidnapping children to be recruited into the military. Boys were taken to fight while girls were taken as sexual slaves. Prior to overthrowing previous president Samuel Doe in 1990, Taylor's National Patriotic Front controlled much of Liberia. His most feared battalions were made up of children as young as 11 which committed numerous atrocities.

After becoming president in 1997, Taylor's government was locked into perpetual warfare with rebel groups that copied his methods. He was eventually forced to step down in 2003. Although his son, Chucky Taylor has been sentenced to a 97-year sentence for his role in his father's brutal government. Charles Taylor himself faces 11 charges including the deployment of child soldiers.  He is currently being held in the United Nations Detention Unit in the Hague.

Many of Taylor's child soldiers continue to be stigmatized by their involvement in the civil war and are ostracized by many elements of Liberian society. Even those with surviving family members are typically rejected and many turn to prostitution or crime to survive. Relief agencies are attempting to aid former child soldiers although they admit that the legacy of psychological trauma and suicide will haunt the region for decades to come.

For more information.

For more information

The Captain

The arrest of the dashing Captain Leslie Barker on February 28, 1929 seemed routine enough. After the war veteran failed to appear at a bankruptcy hearing in the previous December, a warrant for his arrest was issued for contempt of court. Despite his reputation as a sportsman, boxer, and womanizer, Captain Barker surrendered to police without  incident.The big surprise came later when he was remanded to Brixton Prison to await his trial date. It's easy to imagine the prison doctor's astonishment when he gave Barker a routine medical examination and made a rather unexpected discovery.

Captain Leslie Ivor Victor Gauntlett Slight Barker was a woman.

Despite early attempts at hiding the news of Barker's true gender, the information was quickly leaked to the press. Although Barker's friends were astonished enough, the revelation was even more of a shock to his wife Elfrida. In a news interview which she gave shortly after her husband's arrest, she stated that she was "dazed, stunned! In our six years of married life I never once suspected that dear Victor was a woman too!" As she would later state, their lack of normal sexual relations had been explained away as being due to her "husband's" war wounds. Her family, who had been charmed by the gallant officer's courting of their daughter, also expressed their amazement at the revelation.

As police began interviewing Captain Barker (who had been hastily transferred to a women's prison), the full story gradually emerged. Born Lilias Irma Valerie Barker in 1895, available information on her early life suggests that her upbringing was fairly unremarkable. Her father was a wealthy proprietor on the Isle of Jersey and Lilias had been raised as a proper young woman of her generation. After serving in World War I as a Red Cross Nurse, ambulance driver, and horse trainer, she married Lieutenant Harold Arkell-Smith in 1918. This marriage ended in divorce after just a few months and she went on to have two children from another relationship that ended as well. It's hard to say when her fascination with cross-dressing began but, by 1923, she was already well established as "Colonel" Leslie Barker when she courted and married Elfrida Emma Howard.

Along with her two children, Leslie and Elfrida settled down to a somewhat unsettled family life while Barker drifted from job to job. Under the stage name of "Ivor Gauntlett", she pursued a career as an actor before drifting to jobs as a boxing club manager, furniture dealer, dog kennel manager, dairy worker, and farmhand. By 1928, Elfrida decided she had enough and returned home to her father in 1929 although she and Leslie remained married until his arrest.

Leslie Barker became involved in the British Organization of Fascists and quickly distinguished herself* during the 1926 British General Strike by participating in various "Raids on Reds" (breaking up Communist mass meetings in London's Hyde Park). She also ran a boxing program for the Fascists and eventually found a job as a desk clerk in the Regent Palace Hotel (she had since demoted herself from being a Colonel to being a retired Captain). Unfortunately, financial problems led to the bankruptcy charge and her eventually being exposed as a woman.

For obvious reasons, details of trial at the Old Bailey was eagerly followed by the people of London (many of who had never heard the word "transvestite" before). Shortly after being outed as a woman, she sold her story to London's Daily Mail. Titled "My Own Story", it gave "Captain Leslie Barker" as the byline and presented some of the backstory to her strange life.  Excepts from this story include: "I was reared as a boy and always thought a boy had a jolly good time" and "The first tragedy of my life was when the man I loved and should have married was made a prisoner early in the War. Now I am fond of nobody and have no feelings—I only adore my son."

The prosecutors were left floundering as to the exact nature of the charges that were laid against Lilias/Leslie in addition to the original bankruptcy charge.; Although same-sex marriage was illegal in the U.K. (and still is), prosecutors declined to charge her under the U.K.'s Sexual Offenses Act. Instead, they decided to charge her with perjury due to her posing as "Colonel Leslie Barker" when she married Elfrida. As Barker had also posed as an officer when she was charged with possessing a forged firearms certificate two years previously, a second perjury charge was added as well. She was eventually sentenced to nine months in Holloway Prison.

The time spent in a women's prison did nothing to change Ilias' cross-dressing habits and she quickly went back to being Victor Barker after her release. After drifting between different short-term jobs, she eventually became a sideshow attraction under the name of Colonel Barker by 1937. Using the name of Jeffrey Norton, she entered into a common-law relationship with a woman that apparently lasted for the rest of Ilias' life. During WWII, she worked at a switchboard operator in a London hospital while also serving in the Home Guard. After the war, she and her wife Eva moved to Suffolk where they lived until Ilias/Victor Barker died of Parkinson's Disease in 1960. Her death certificate gave her name as Geoffrey Norton and she is buried on the grounds of St. Edmund's church.

While not as well known as James Barry or the Chevalier d'Eon, Ilias Barker's case remains one of the most fascinating examples of its kind.  There's no medical evidence to suggest that Ilias Barker was intersexual or suffering from a gender disorder (the diagnosis of which continues to be controversial even today). In 2002, author Rose Collis released a book titled Colonel Barker's Monstrous Regiment: A Tale of Female Husbandry, it ensures that Ilias Barker's amazing story will be remembered.

For more information.

How Does Alcohol Affect Adults with ADHD?

The acute impact that alcohol can have on controlling inhibitions has been well documented in healthy drinkers. On the other hand, there has been little research into the effect of alcohol on individuals with disorders characterized by poor impulse control, such as those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A study published in a recent issue of Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology tested the impact of alchohol on subjects with ADHD (n = 10) and controls (n = 12) using the cued version of the go/no-go task (a measure of implicit social cognition). The task requires quick responses to go targets and suppression of responses to no-go targets following the presentation of cues. Prior research on healthy adults has shown that valid cues can protect against alcohol impairment. Performance was tested under 3 doses of alcohol: 0.65 g/kg, 0.45 g/kg, and 0.0 g/kg (placebo). Alcohol dose-dependently increased inhibitory failures in controls in the invalid, but not the valid, cue condition. By contrast, those with ADHD displayed significant alcohol impairment regardless of cue condition. Thus, unlike controls, valid cues offered little protection from the disinhibiting effects of alcohol in drinkers with ADHD, suggesting an increased sensitivity to alcohol impairment of inhibitory control. The authors conclude that adults with ADHD exhibit an increased sensitivity to alcohol impairment of basic acts of inhibitory control, and this may contribute to the high incidence of impulsive behaviours observed in individuals with this disorder.

For more information.

Son Confesses, "I Killed My Mum"

An Auckland-born microbiologist is facing potential charges over giving a lethal dose of morphine to his terminally ill mother. In a manuscript for a book that he wrote describing his mother's harrowing battle with cancer, 47-year old Sean Davison apparently admitted that he gave his mother the morphine to end her suffering. Although the incriminating information had been removed from the final draft, a copy of the original draft was anonymously leaked to the press. Davison, a professor of biotechnology at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa, has since verified the information and stated that he does not fear being charged.

Davison's book, Before We Say Goodbye, has just been published and describes Patricia Davison's long battle with cancer and his mother's repeated requests to allowed to die.  Patricia Davison, a retired psychiatrist, was suffering from terminal colon cancer which left her in agony. She conducted a 33-day hunger strike which, while unsuccessful, apparently motivated her son to give her the fatal dose (while passive euthanasia is legal in New Zealand, assisted suicide is not). In October 2006, he reportedly offered her a "lethal drink of crushed morphine tablets" mixed in water. After calling him a "wonderful son", she took the drink without hesitation and died several hours later. At her request, there were no resuscitation attempts.

Although Sean Davison has since left New Zealand for his home in South Africa, a police investigation is underway. Following his mother's death, he has become an advocate for euthanasia. A recent survey has indicated that 71% of New Zealanders favour medically-assisted death.

For more information.

A Tale of Two Books

Since 1258 when Pope Alexander IV first called for the prosecution of witches as heretics, the Church wholeheartedly accepted its role in stamping out witchcraft across Europe. Despite growing Protestant opposition to the persecutions, the Inquisition persisted in the arrest and prosecution of those suspected of witchcraft (usually women). Despite papal bulls and official Church pronouncements, there continued to be active dissent over how witches could be properly identified. It was only in the 15th century, when Heinrich Kramer first wrote what would later be known as the Malleus Maleficarum (the Witches' Hammer), that a true handbook for witch hunters became available. Kramer had been an active witch hunter in Austria whose anti-witch activities had been actively suppressed by the local bishop. Along with his colleague James Spenger, Kramer later arranged for a papal bull in 1484 to support their writings and their own witch-hunting efforts.

Many theologians actually opposed the Malleus at first since they viewed Kramer's methods as being unethical and illegal. Although Kramer was denounced by the Inquisition in 1490, his public lectures and widespread popularity of his handbook led to its formal acceptance. We can probably thank Johannes Gutenberg for the popularity of the Malleus since the invention of movable type made the book widely available across Europe. Between 1487 and 1520 alone, it was reprinted thirteen times and the anti-witch persecutions began in earnest.

The Witches' Hammer is divided into three sections: the first section addresses the "mistaken" belief that witchcraft didn't exist. Kramer and Spenger were emphatic in linking witchcraft to sexuality (primarily female sexuality). Since women were more "concerned with things of the flesh than men" and "all witchcraft comes from carnal lust", women were especially susceptible to the Devil's temptations. The second section deals with the powers that witches possess and how they recruit others to join them in their forbidden practices. Witches gained their power by signing their souls to Satan and their actions automatically made them blasphemers who betrayed God. The final section deals with the procedures to be following in "proving" witches and their punishment. Kramer and Spenger laid out a careful description of methods of questioning suspected witches (including different forms of torture), gathering evidence against witches, and the formal charges to be used.

The book provides a thorough guide to the psychological intimidation tactics used against accused witches. Not only did the book recommend telling witches about the tortures they would face if they didn't confess freely, but also promising worse tortures as the questioning continued. As Kramer and Spenger wrote, "And, while he is being tortured, he [the witch]- must be questioned on the articles of accusation, and this frequently and persistently, beginning with the lighter charges-for he will more readily confess the lighter than the heavier. And, while this is being done, the notary must write down everything in his record of the trial--how the prisoner is tortured, on what points he is questioned, and how he answers." Any evidence obtained through torture was perfectly valid and judges were also permitted to lie to the accused by promising them leniency if they confessed. The authors also instructed jailers to stay with the accused witch at all times, otherwise "she will be visited by the Devil and tempted into suicide."

And now we come to the other book...

Reginald Scot was no Heinrich Kramer. Born in 1538, there is very little known about his life except that he came from an old English family and enjoyed caring for his  beloved hop gardens (he also wrote a book on hop farming). While he seemed like an unlikely rebel against the witch mania that gripped Europe, Scot was moved to act after seeing fourteen women in a nearby village being tried for witchcraft in 1582. After researching how evidence was gathered and used against accused witches, Scot eventually published his findings in 1584 as The Discoverie of Witchcraft. Due to the book's controversial nature, Scot was forced to publish it himself.In his book, Scot argued against the existence of witches and and denounced the prosecution of suspected witches as irrational and "contrary to Christian doctrine".  He also raised the novel suggestion that anyone claiming to be a witch was actually deluded and needed to be "guided in their religious faith" rather than executed.

Scot railed against the Malleus Maleficarum and "witchhunters" in general, stating that "because it may appear unto the world what treacherous and faithless dealings, what extreme and intolerable tyranny, what gross and foolish absurdities, what unnatural and uncivil discourtesy, what cankered and spiteful malice, what outrageous and barbarous cruelty… what abominable and devilish inventions, and what flat and plain knavery is practiced against these old women, I will set down the whole order of the Inquisition, to the everlasting, inexcusable, and apparent shame of all witch-mongers”. What made Discoverie even more remarkable was that Scot also denounced various popular superstitions including astrology, divination, charms, and witches' sabbats.He even provided a description of "harmless" conjuring tricks that were often linked with witchcraft. Not only did this make his book one of the first true classics of skepticism, but Scot is also credited with one of the earliest known treatises on stage magic.

It should hardly be surprising that the leading theologians and demonologists of Scot's time denounced his book.& Unfortunately,his greatest critic was King James VI of Scotland (later King James I of England). A Protestant convert who took witchcraft very seriously, the King's reign in Scotland was marked by some of the worst witch hunts in British history (James had personally authorized the use of torture and burnings in dealing with witches). His Royal Displeasure with Reginald Scot's book was all too apparent and, when he became King of England in 1603, James ordered all copies to be burned. It was just as well that Reginald Scot died in 1599 since he likely would have been prosecuted for his beliefs. Only a few copies survived King James' purge although the Discoverie would be heavily plagiarized in later centuries.

With critics like Scot being effectively silenced, the Malleus Maleficarum would be the primary reference for witch hunters and judges alike in dealing with accused witches for more than two centuries after it was published. Between 1480 and 1700, an estimated 40,000 (some historians put the number much higher) of convicted witches and heretics (mostly women) were executed across Europe and its various colonies. While it's easy to regard the witch trials as being a thing of the past,episodes of witch hysteria continue to occur around the world. 

The witch hunters aren't out of business yet.

When Men Harass

A study in the March 2009 issue of Journal of Applied Psychology demonstrated relations between men's perceptions of organizational justice and increased inclination towards sexual harassment. The researchers used a sample of 110 male employees of different companies in Switzerland. They were assessed with a battery of measures examining attitudes towards women, organizational policies, and personality traits. Respondents reported higher likelihood to sexually harass under conditions of low interactional justice, suggesting that sexual harassment likelihood may increase as a response to perceived injustice. The relation between justice and sexual harassment tendencies was especially marked for men low in agreeableness and high in hostile sexism. This finding is consistent with an interactionist perspective, suggesting that individual differences in hostility in general and toward women in particular affect how a person reacts to perceived unfairness. The authors discuss their results in terms of the study's limitations and the need for additional research into harassment.

For more information.