Providentia

Reading the Bumps (Part 2 of 2)

Continued from Part 1

Born in Steuben Country, New York in 1809, Orson Fowler attended Amherst College in Massachusetts.  While attending school there, he developed a keen interest in phrenology which he shared with his best friend, Henry Ward Beecher.   While Beecher went into ministry work after their graduation in  1834, Fowler had other ideas.  He and his brother, Lorenzo Fowler opened a phrenology office in New York City and launched a series of public lectures on phrenology, physiology,  psychology, and social reform.   Orson Fowler also became a popular writer and editor of the American Phrenological Journal and placed his own stamp on American phrenology by launching one of the largest mail-order firms in New York City.   At the height of the phrenology craze, Fowler's New York offices attracted as many visitors as the nearby museum run by P.T. Barnum.    Along with phrenology, the Fowlers also promoted a new "scientific" system of shorthand called phonography (they called it scientific since it was based on a specific set of rules).   Not that the Fowler family believed in limiting themselves in any way.   Orson's wife Lydia and sister, Charlotte, were both active suffragettes and the Fowler offices in New York became a gathering place where people could discuss anything from abolishing slavery (pre-Civil War) to the crusade against alcohol (did I forget to mention that they were also temperance movement supporters?). 

Although the American Phrenological Journal that Fowler edited folded up by 1842,  his company did brisk business with a range of other products.  Along with books and pamphlets (mostly written by Orson Fowler),  the company also sold phrenological charts, measuring tapes, craniometers, and the classic china Phrenology Heads which are still collectors' items today.     The Fowler brothers also took their show across the country as part of a regular lecture circuit although they often faced attacks by skeptics denouncing phrenology as "quackery".   While both Fowlers defended the science behind their work, that claim became harder to defend as mainstream medical researchers withdrew support.  Still, the Fowler brothers carried on their crusade and insisted that phrenology had just as much right to be labelled a science as mathematics, astronomy, or natural history.   Orson Fowler also stressed the theological importance of phrenology, which revealed "the hand-writing of God" since its principles, like all scientific truths as far as he was concerned,  were "of divine origin".    Lorenzo Fowler even argued that phrenologists were completing the work that Jesus Christ started in reforming human behaviour.

As for the Orson Fowler book in my collection, it seems fairly typical of the phrenological literature that he sold through his company.   The book's introduction begins with:  "Reproduction is Nature's paramount work;  because to all else what foundation is to house- its sine qua non.  It has its SCIENCE, or natural laws, prescribed modus operandi and, and instrumentalities.  GENDER IS ITS MASTER WORKMAN, and Nature's "male and female" arrangement, with its governing law, her chose "ways and means" or originating all life: which growth completes."   Covering nine sections in all, the book includes sections such as "Gender and Sexuality", "Love", "Sexual Selection", "Married Life",  "Generation" (the polite Victorian euphemism for sexual intercourse), "Maternity",  and "Sexual Restoration".    Despite these being taboo topics during the Victorian era in which Fowler was writing, his tenuous claim to medical expertise enabled him to present his phrenological advice in the form of a marriage manual for concerned adults trying to deal with different aspects of human sexuality.   While Orson Fowler proudly inserted the word "science" into his book as much as he could (usually in capital letters), there was very little, if any, empirical testing of the elaborate claims that he made in his book.  He certainly didn't believe in referencing his "facts" and, despite abundant illustrations, there doesn't seem to be any citations (aside from his own works).   The book also contains surprising little phrenology and mostly deals with Victorian ideals about the proper age for teaching children about sexual matters and the need for a "scientific" approach to sex and love.   The book seems to say more about Fowler's personal biases than any attempt at scientific objectivity.   As well, his insistence that producing children was the ultimate purpose for any sexual act marked him very much as a man of his time. 

Whenever critics  accused him of being more interested in making money than actually promoting phrenology, Orson Fowler simply defended himself by saying that he worked so hard because "I loved the science!".     Still,  the decline had begun setting in after 1860 and Lorenzo Fowler, sensing that the market was drying up, moved to Great Britain in 1863 to continue his phrenology crusade there.  Although Charlotte Fowler took over running the company and a new generation of Fowlers came on board to help with the mail-order business, phrenology's day was definitely past.  By the time Orson Fowler died in 1887, phrenology was just one of many different "sciences" being promoted by travelling hucksters giving lectures across the country.    As the phrenology market dried up, the ex-phrenologists drifted on to more profitable ventures, including spiritualist research and more evolutionary explanations for human behaviourism.  

Beginning in the 1870s,  Social Darwinist theories based (loosely) on Darwin's theory of evolution grew in popularity and social reformers shifted away from phrenology-based social reform towards improving human behaviour through "good breeding".  As phrenology societies faded, eugenics societies formed on both sides of the Atlantic with credible scientists using their research to boost the idea of improving society through genetics  (especially Charles Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton).   But that's another story.

While phrenologists tried every marketing strategy that they could, including the developing of mechanical phrenology devices (which I once tried myself at an American Psychological Association convention),  American phrenology never survived Orson Fowler's death.  Despite phrenology fading in the United States, the movement staggered on in parts of Europe despite most scientists denouncing its validity.   Several early 20th scientists, such as Bernard Hollander in the United Kingdom and Paul Bouts in Belgium, tried repackaging phrenology to make it more acceptable but their efforts are largely forgotten today. 

Although phrenology has long since been relegated to obscurity, the legacy that Gall, Spurzheim, and Fowler left behind still lingers.   Various pseudoscientific schemes for classifying people still enjoy some popularity, whether through classifying people by blood-type,  graphology (handwriting), or astrology, although none of them seem to have ever enjoyed the scientific respectability that phrenology could claim (at first).    

Unfortunately, while pseudoscientific movements can be easily dismissed, more scientifically validated methods of personality classification using psychometric testing are prone to misuse as well (and often are).   Various media psychologists selling unscientific advice to the public through self-help books, radio, and television appearances often rely on the same selling strategies that worked for Orson Fowler,  however briefly.    Failing to acknowledge the very real scientific limits of psychology will almost certainly catch up to them in time however.   Whether the current pundits can learn from Orson Fowler's example remains to be seen.

 

 

 

 

How Practical is Brain Training?

Prior researchers have shown that the brain has a remarkable ability for adapting to environmental changes. The positive effects of such neural plasticity include enhanced functioning in specific cognitive domains and shifts in cortical representation following naturally occurring cases of sensory deprivation; however, maladaptive changes in brain function and development owing to early developmental adversity and stress have also been well documented. Researchers examining enriched rearing environments in animals have revealed the potential for inducing positive brain plasticity effects and have helped to popularize methods for training the brain to reverse early brain deficits or to boost normal cognitive functioning. In an article recently published in American Psychologist, two classes of empirically based methods of brain training in children are reviewed and critiqued: laboratory-based, mental process training paradigms and ecological interventions based upon neurocognitive conceptual models. Given the susceptibility of executive function disruption, special attention is paid to training programs that emphasize executive function enhancement. In addition, a third approach to brain training, aimed at tapping into compensatory processes, is postulated. Study results showing the effectiveness of this strategy in the field of neurorehabilitation and in terms of naturally occurring compensatory processing in human aging lend credence to the potential of this approach.

For the abstract.

Adapting to Facial Paralysis

How do people incapable of making facial expressions function in society?  Although there has been little research on the adaptive behavior of people with congenital compared to acquired disability, there is reason to predict that people with congenital conditions may be better adapted because they have lived with their conditions for their entire lives (Smart, 2008).   In a recent paper published in Rehabilitation Psychology, researchers examined whether people with congenital facial paralysis (FP), compared to people with acquired FP, compensate more for impoverished facial expression by using alternative channels of expression (i.e., voice and body).   Participants with congenital (n = 13) and acquired (n = 14) FP were videotaped while recalling emotional events. Expressive verbal behavior was measured using the Linguistic Inquiry Word Count (Pennebaker, Booth, & Francis, 2007). Nonverbal behavior and FP severity were rated by trained coders. Results showed that people with congenital FP, compared to acquired FP, used more compensatory expressive verbal and nonverbal behavior in their language, voices, and bodies. The extent of FP severity had little effect on compensatory expressivity.  This study provides the first behavioral evidence that people with congenital FP use more adaptations to express themselves than people with acquired FP. These behaviors could inform social functioning interventions for people with FP.

For the abstract

Final Public Review for Draft Version of DSM-5 Now Underway

As part of their ongoing review process,  the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 Task Force will be soliciting public feedback on the draft fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders  (DSM-5) from May 2 through June 15, 2012.    This is the final public review period and follows the previous review period of May-June 2011.   Already the  subject of considerable controversy, the DSM-5 is due for release in May 2013 and is likely to shape mental health policy across North America for years to come.   Along with changes to the diagnostic criteria for many established psychiatric disorders, the DSM-5 will also be introducing new diagnosed such as Suicidal Behavior Disorder,  Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Disorder, and Persistent Complex Bereavement Disorder. Among the significant changes proposed for existing psychiatric diagnoses, the DSM-5 task force is recommending:

• A redefining of current autism diagnoses  into a single diagnosis know as Autism Spectrum Disorder intended to accomodate all of the complex problems faced by children and adults currently diagnosed as autistic.  This is meant to include Asperger's Syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive development disorder- not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS).    By combining these different diagnoses into a single diagnostic category into a single diagnostic category, the DSM-5 task force is hoping to eliminate potential confusion given the similar symptoms displayed by individuals with the different diagnoses.
• Redefining Major Depressive Disorder to allow for he often devastating consequences of grief.   Since patients dealing with  bereavment often mimic some or all of the diagnostic criteria of Major Depression.  Due to the possibility of misdiagnosis by untrained people using diagnostic checklists, the new DSM-5 will include footnotes to help clinicians recognize how loss reactions can be distinguished from mental illness.
• Due to c0ncerns about the proposed diagnosis of  Attenuated Psychosis Syndrome (which in turn replaces the even more controversial Psychosis Risk Syndrome diagnosis) as well as Mixed Anxiety Depressive Disorder, these two diagnosis have been deferred for further study and possible inclusion in future versions of the DSM. 
• Communication disorders have now been expanded to Language Disorder and Speech Disorder.  A third diagnosis, Social Communication Disorder is proposed (which is distinguished from Autism Spectrum Disorder).  
• Under the general category of Sleep-Wake Disorders  (formerly Sleep Disorders in the DSM-IV-TR) are a range of new diagnoses including Insomnia Disorder, Hypersomnolence Disorders, Obstructive Sleep Hypopnea Syndrome, Nightmare Disorder, Restless Legs Syndrome,  Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder and Substance-induced Sleep Disorder.
• Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders will be placed in a separate category and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder will be given a new subtype for preschool children.   This category will also include Acute Stress Disorder,  Reactive Attachment Disorder, Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder, and Trauma- or Stressor-Related Disorders Not Elsewhere Classified.
• The Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders Work Group has proposed a new diagnostic term Gender Dysphoria with subcategories for children, adolescents and adults.   The new diagnostic label will replace existing categories of Gender Identity Disorder and Transvestic Fetishism and has already generated enormous opposition by transgender activists.
• Existing DSM-IV-TR diagnoses often linked to antisocial behaviour in children and adults including Conduct Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Intermittent Explosive Disorder are now categorized under Disruptive, Impulse Control and Conduct Disorders.   Antisocial Personality Disorder (also termed Dyssocial Personality Disorder) is included in this category along with Disruptive Behavior Disorder Not Otherwise Classified.
• The category Substance Use and Addictive Disorder has been expanded to include Gambling Disorder (formerly classified as an Impulse Control Disorder), Tobacco Use Disorder, and Tobacco Withdrawal.   A group of diagnoses linked to Unknown Substance Use are also included for the first time.   As well, Caffeine Use Disorder, Internet Use Disorder, and Neurobehavioral Disorder Associated with Prenatal Alcohol Exposure have been added to Section III of the DSM-5 for further study.
• There is also a radical redefinition of personality disorders proposed for the DSM-5 with a streamlined approach to diagnosis and an extensive guide for implementation.  A series of examples will be included to help clinicians make a proper diagnosis.
• Paraphilic Disorders are now listed in a separate category.  Pedophilic Disorder has been expanded to include a new Hebephilic subtype to reflect sexual attraction to post-pubescent children.    Including hebephilia in the DSM-5 has been extremely controversial with mental health professionals opposing its inclusion on various grounds.   The Sexual and Gender Disorders Work Group are also recommending the inclusion of Hypersexual Disorder and Paraphilic Coercive Disorder for inclusion in Section III of the DSM-5 for further study.

The DSM-5 editors stress that the proposed changes are not final and will undergo further revisions before the end of 2012.  The DSM-5 website will be soliciting comments from the public until June 15th to allow for sufficient feedback.  Anyone with concerns about the current form of the DSM-5 is welcome to  provide feedback.  Given that the importance of ensuring that the DSM-5 will be as fair and unbiased as possible, the time to act is now.

Click here for the link.

 

How Do Hormones Affect Cognition During Pregnancy?

A longitudinal study recently published in Behavioral Neuroscience investigated the possible influence of estradiol (E₂), progesterone (P), testosterone (T), cortisol (CORT), and prolactin (PRL) levels on cognitive functioning during late pregnancy and the early postpartum period. The performance of 55 pregnant women on a battery of neuropsychological tests, tested once during the third trimester of pregnancy and once during the early postpartum period, was compared with that of 21 nonpregnant controls matched for age and education. Women in the pregnancy group had significantly lower scores than the controls during both the pre- and postpartum visits on tasks of verbal recall and processing speed. CORT levels were significantly associated, in an inverted-U function, with verbal recall scores at both the pregnancy and at postpartum periods and with spatial abilities at postpartum only. During pregnancy, PRL levels were associated in both a linear and an inverted-U function with scores on tests of paragraph recall and in a linear function with scores on tests of executive function. At postpartum, E₂ and CORT were negatively associated in a linear fashion with attention scores. These findings provide new evidence that fluctuating hormone levels during late pregnancy and early postpartum may modulate selected cognitive abilities.

For the abstract.

Celebrating Mental Health Week and National Mental Health Month

The Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) has declared May 7 to May 13, 2012 as Mental Health Week.    With the theme "Mental Health For All",  Mental Health Week is an annual national event designed to encourage people to learn, talk, reflect and engage with others on all issues surrounding mental health.    Along with regional and local events, the Assocation is focusing on key topics highlighting the different ways that mental health issues can affect us all.

These topics include :

• "Kids Can Have Stress, Too!"

The Kids Can Have Stress Too! program was developed to boost childrens's ability to handle the normal stress of growing up.   Educating parents, caregivers, and teachers on how to recognize stress in children, the program is also designed to give them the knowledge and insight to help the children in their care cope with stress in healthy ways.  The original program was developed for classroom use with children aged five to nine but a second pre-schooler program has also been developed for pre-school children.   The CMHA is working with social service agences and public health units to bring these programs to every province in Canada.

•   Resiliency: at Home, at School, and at Work

What is resiliency?  It is defined as "a combination of skills and positive attributes that people gain from their life to help them solve problems, cope with challenges and bounce back from disappointments".   As part of their Mental Health Week initiative, CMHA is encouraging adults to develop their resiliency skills to help them function at work and to teach those essential skills to their children.  

•  Mental Health is Everyone's Concern

Although research shows that one in five Canadians will suffer a mental illness at some time in their lives, the stigma surrounding mental illness remains unacceptably strong.   Along with being present in every family, mental illness is also the leading cause of disability in Canada accounting for nearly thirty percent of all disability claims and costs the Canadian economy 50 billion dollars a year in health care costs and lost revenue.  To prevent mental illness from being "swept under the carpet", the CMHA is working to combat many of the myths surrounding mental illness that can prevent people from getting the help that they need or becoming reintegrated into society afterward.   As the fact sheets available on the CMHA site show, most people with mental illness can, and do, get better and return to their normal lives.

Contact the CMHA to learn more about Mental Health Week events in your community or to download the Mental Health Week 2012 Toolkit. 

Also, in the United States,  Mental Health America is celebrating May as "Mental Health Month".    First started in 1949,  marking May as Mental Health Month raises awareness of the one in four Americans who suffer from mental health issues and to improve mental wellness for all.  This year's two main themes are: 

• "Do More for 1 in 4"

Providing a call for action for the one in four Americans who live with diagnosible and treatable mental illnesses.    Download the Do More For 1in4 Toolkit.

• Healing Trauma's Invisible Wounds

Dealing with trauma can often take a lifetime and many trauma sufferers are either unwilling or unable to get the help they need.   Traumatic events can affect entire communities as much as they affect individuals.    Download the Healing Trauma's Invisible Wounds Toolkit.

Contact Mental Health America to learn more about Mental Health Month and their other resources.

 

 

 

 

Does Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Increase Suicide Risk in Veterans with PTSD?

Research shows that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) independently increase suicide risk; however, scant research has investigated whether mTBI increases suicide risk above and beyond the risk associated with PTSD alone.   A research study published in a recent issue of Rehabilitation Psychology compared suicide risk factors among a matched sample of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) military personnel and veterans with PTSD alone or PTSD and a history of an mTBI.  Results show that differences in the assessed risk factors were small and suggest that if PTSD and mTBI are associated with elevations in suicide risk relative to PTSD alone, the added risk is likely mediated or confounded by PTSD symptom severity.  This finding highlights the importance of screening and treating military personnel and veterans for PTSD. Future explication of the impact of TBI-related impairments on suicide risk will be critical as we strive to ensure safety and optimize care for our military personnel and veterans.

For the abstract.

200 Million Girls Go "Missing" in India and China

So there are no girls born, in China anymore
I feel so forlorn, with nobody to keep me warm
Confucian culture scorns daughters in favor of sons
So there are no girls born and I'm doomed to be just one

My parents chose me in utero to carry on the family name
But if I can't find a bride I'll be carrying nothing but shame
You gotta be tall, educated, and own your own house
miss one out of three, you won't find a spouse.

While the plaintive lyrics of the new video and song No girls born (in China anymore) released by Taiwan's Next Media Animation highlights the grim gender imbalance arising from China's population control policy, the epidemic of female infanticide in parts of India is less well-known.    A shocking BBC documentary, India's Missing Girls, released in 2007 provides stark testimony relating to the thousands of  infants in India who are abandoned, aborted or killed, simply for being female.   In one case, a two-day old baby in India's Andhra Pradesh state was found and rescued after being buried alive by her grandfather.   Following his arrest, the grandfather defended his actions by insisting that his household could not afford another female.    She had been wrapped in a cloth and buried deep in the ground but bystanders found her by the sound of her crying and a tiny hand sticking out of the earth.   

In rural China and India, the same somber arithmetic often comes into play for families with limited incomes:  boys are more valuable since they will traditionally carry on the family name and provide for parents in their old age.  For numerous Chinese families, with the one-child policy in force in many parts of the country, forced abortions (following genetic testing for sex), female infanticides, and underreporting of female births remain common.   Despite growing concern over the growing shortage of females in China, the one-child policy is expected to remain in place for at least another decade.

Although mandatory dowries for brides are no longer required in India, they remain a traditional part of most Indian marriages.   Since impoverished families worry about dowry costs, female children are typically made to feel that they are burdens from an early age and abandoned children are typically female.    Female infanticide has become less common due to advances in medical technology.  Still, ultrasound scans to determine an infant's gender in the early stages of pregnancy often lead to abortions if that infant turns out to be female.   According to Rita Banerji, founder and chief-administrator of an online global campaign to halt female infanticide in India,  "I’m an Indian woman, and my country looks me in the eye and says, “You and your kind mean nothing to us.  You are like little flies. We’ve swatted 50 million females like you!”  You kill a cow, and a riot breaks out in the city.  Here we have young married women and new born girls killed every few minutes in this country.  Why does that not evoke the same response from Indians?".   

A new documentary film titled "It's a Girl!" scheduled for release this year interviews Banerji and other activists and, as well as a  second documentary film, "Born to Die", raise troubling questions surrounding lack of action in China and India concerning the need to protect female infants.  

Along with legislation banning the use of portable ultrasound imaging to determine gender of unborn infants, children's organization in India are mobilizing to protect abandoned girls as well as combatting attitudes encouraging female infanticide.   The Aarti Homes project was first launched in the Andhra Pradesh city of Kadapa with the discovery of an abandoned three-year old girl in 1992.  Over twenty years, the Aarti orphanage expanded from a shelter for abandoned girls to providing shelter and schooling for hundreds of children.  As well, the Aarti Foundation provides community outreach programs to raise awareness about gender equality and the very real power imbalance that exists between Indian men and women.  

Despite slow progress, the plight of female children in India and China continues.   Without real change, the demographic and economic consequences of gender imbalance is likely to haunt both countries for decades to come.

For more information

 

Faking Remorse

Emotional deception is a common behaviour that can have major consequences if undetected. For example, the sincerity of an offender's expressed remorse is an important factor in sentencing and parole hearings. A research study pubished in a recent issue of Law and Human Behavior was the first to investigate the nature of true and false remorse. The researchers examined facial, verbal and body language behaviours associated with emotional deception in videotaped accounts of true personal transgressions accompanied by either genuine or falsified remorse. Analyses of nearly 300,000 frames indicated that descriptions of falsified remorse were associated with a greater range of emotional expressions. Further, sequential analyses revealed that negative emotions were more commonly followed by other emotions—rather than a return to neutral emotion—in falsified versus sincere remorse. Participants also exhibited more speech hesitations while expressing deceptive relative to genuine remorse. In general, the results suggest that falsified remorse may be conceived as an emotionally turbulent display of deliberate, falsified expressions and involuntary, genuine, emotional leakage. These findings are relevant to judges and parole board members who consider genuine remorse to be an important factor in sentencing and release decisions.

For the abstract.

Can Letters Prevent Military Suicides?

Here is a new guest blog post that I have written at the Huffington Post on a pilot project recently launched to help curb the rising suicide rate in U.S. military personnel.

For many soldiers deployed abroad in distant countries, the sense of isolation and danger can be overwhelming. It is hardly surprising that military suicides have risen astronomically since the beginning of the respective missions to Iraq and Afghanistan with a recent study showing an 80 per cent increase in suicides among U.S. soldiers during the period from 2004 to 2008 alone.

To read more, click here.