Providentia

What Is Causing Mass Hysteria in India?

A phenomena known as mass hysteria occurs when a group of people experience comparable mental or physical symptoms at the same time, most of the time without any discernible explanation. For many years, it has been a topic of curiosity for scientists and researchers, but at the same time, it has been a cause of worry and confusion for the people that are impacted by it. Concerns over the mental health of the region have been raised as a result of a recent string of occurrences involving mass hysteria that took place in the highlands of Uttarakhand,  in India.

In numerous different villages in Uttarakhand, occurrences of mass hysteria were documented. These incidents involved large groups of individuals, especially schoolgirls, suddenly screaming, dancing, and untying their braids. At first, the events were thought to have been caused by supernatural forces, and as a result, people began carrying out rituals and giving prayers in an effort to placate the gods. On the other hand, as a result of an increase in the number of incidents, the medical community started to take attention.

According to a report that was published in The Times of India, the state administration has established a committee comprised of medical professionals in order to conduct an investigation into the cases of mass hysteria. The committee came to the conclusion that the events were not brought about by supernatural forces but rather were the product of psychological causes such as anxiety, fear, and tension. In addition, the research brought to light the fact that the region's mental health problems were being disregarded, and that there was a dearth of facilities and educated specialists in the field of mental health.

The outbreaks of public hysteria that have been reported are not exclusive to Uttarakhand; rather, they have been documented in other regions of the world. However, the lack of attention given to the mental health problems that are prevalent in the Uttarakhand region is what makes the instances in that state so troubling. The population has experienced increased levels of stress and anxiety as a direct result of the hilly terrain, the lack of employment options, and the social and economic marginalization that has occurred. The COVID-19 epidemic has further aggravated the situation, which has led to an increase in the number of people experiencing problems with their mental health.

It is of the utmost importance to address the mental health problems that exist in the region, and this should be done not only to reduce the risk of outbreaks of mass hysteria but also to enhance the general health and well-being of the local people. Those in need of psychological therapy and support have a right to expect the government to make investments in mental health facilities and in the training of the experts who work in those facilities. In addition to this, there is a pressing need to raise awareness about issues pertaining to mental health and to lessen the stigma that is associated with seeking assistance.

The outbreaks of mass hysteria Uttarakhand should serve as a wake-up call to both the government and the general public to place a higher priority on issues relating to mental health. The lack of attention given to mental health in the region has resulted in the misinterpretation of the experiences, which in turn has resulted in the continuation of beliefs in the existence of the supernatural. It is imperative that the government take preventative measures to address the mental health concerns plaguing the area and offer assistance to individuals who are in need. It is time to end the stigma around mental health and work toward building a culture that is kind, supporting, and welcoming to people of all backgrounds.

Catholic Exorcists Complain of Overwork Due to Too Many Possession Cases

The 16th annual exorcism held recently by The Pontifical Athenaeum Regina Apostolorum in Rome has drawn in 120 attendants,  a record number according to sources.   Despite the controversy surrounding the rite, the demand for exorcists worldwide has been spurred on by Pope Francis I who has publicly endorsed the Catholic Church's role in helping "those possessed by evil."  This has helped produce a "Pope Francis Effect"  with more cases of demonic possession being reported in Europe, Africa, and South America.   

While the exorcism course's organizers have acknowledged the need for more support from mental health professionals to help distinguish between mental illness and genuine possession, many families remain adamant in demanding exorcisms rather than accepting that someone is mentally ill.    As a result, many exorcists attending the course openly admitted to being overworked and not receiving proper help from mental health professionals and bishops.

In one recent case, Roman Catholic priests in northern Italy conducted a nine-hour exorcism on a  26-year-old woman who became violent during confession and hurled insults in different languages, including Latin.  "The young woman had already been seen by an exorcist in Verona, but on Sunday, her parents brought her here, probably to have another go at curing an evil she had suffered for some time," said one priest to reporters.   While the woman's father insisted that her problems were due to mental illness, her mother and other family members insisted that she be exorcised instead.  

The exorcism was conducted at the Saint Mary of Mount Berico church in Vicenza, Italy,while other churchgoers and emergency crews were prevented from entering the church until afterward.   When official exorcist Father Giuseppe Bernardi failed to drive out the demon, other priests stepped in to assist.   After the ritual was over, she fell into a deep sleep which they took as a sign of success though she had undergone previous exorcisms.  The liberation can not happen immediately. It depends on the strength of the presence and on the entity of the evil one," said one priest.   

While Father Bernardi insisted that he had previously consulted psychologists about the woman's case, this is not always the case.  Other attendees at the exorcism course also described being called in to conduct exorcisms for a range of other medical conditions, including COVID-19.  

At present, Italy has 290 exorcists with some dioceses even operating exorcism hotlines for people demanding the rite.  Meanwhile cases of exorcisms being conducted worldwide by religious figures hoping to "drive out evil."  Many of these exorcisms have been carried out with the permission and even participation of family members and have led to fatalities and subsequent assault or murder trials.   Preventing such tragedies in future may require a miracle in itself.

 

 

Late NASA Engineer Identified as Original Inspiration for "The Exorcist"

When Ronald Edwin Hunkeler died last year at his Maryland home at the age of 86, official obituaries described his long career at NASA, including his work on the Apollo space missions of the 1960s and his expertise in developing heat resistant tiles.   But, a recent issue of the Skeptical Inquirer announced that Hunkeler was the real name for "Ronald Doe,"  the fourteen-year-old boy whose repeated exorcisms in 1949 helped inspire the 1973 classic film, "The Exorcist."

Born in Cottage City, Maryland, in 1935, Hunkeler first reported experiencing paranormal activities at the age of fourteen. This supernatural activity reportedly occurred following the death of a favorite aunt who had been a spiritualist.   Allegedly, she had introduced him to the supernatural along with how to use an Ouija board.   

The paranormal phenomena Ronald began experiencing reportedly included hearing knocking and scratching sounds coming from behind his bedroom walls.  He also became the center of apparent poltergeist activity including heavy furniture moving and images of Christ vibrating on walls.  

It was the Hunkelers's family minister, the Reverend Luther Schulze, who wrote to Duke University in 1949 to describe the bizarre phenomena occurring whenever Ronald was nearby.  During the night Ronald spent at Schulze's house, also described how “chairs moved with [Hunkeler] and one threw him out [of it.] His bed shook whenever he was in it.”  This led S the reverend to conclude that  "evil was at work" and arranged for a Lutheran rite of exorcism to be carried out.   When this failed, Ronald's family then turned to the Catholic Church for further help.

Ronald's family then sought the help of Jesuit exorcist William Bowdern.  Bowdern carefully documented what occurred during the course of the more than twenty exorcisms he and his colleagues carried out that year on Ronald  Hunkeler.  Along with describing how Ronald entered a "trancelike" state in front of witnesses, there were also reported episodes of religious relics being thrown to the floor, mysterious scratching noises, and mysterious messages being written on the boy's ribs.

Based on the messages, one of which involved the word "Louis" being written in deep red scratches, Ronald was then transferred to the Alexian Brothers Hospital St. Louis, Missouri to be treated for demonic possession.  While at the hospital, Ronald "broke into a violent tantrum of screaming, cursing, and voicing of Latin phrases."   Also, in a diary that Reverend Bowden kept of the exorcisms, he reported that words such as "evil" and "hell" erupted on Ronald's skin, and he broke the nose of one of the priests during his violent thrashing.   When the final exorcism was complete, witnesses reported a loud noise in the hospital.  Though Ronald himself had o apparent memory of the exorcisms, all of the priests in attendance were consistent in their belief that it was an actual possession.

While skeptics noted various discrepancies in the accounts provided by the priests, rumors about Along with inspiring William Blatty's book and the movie of the same name, the case of  Ronald Doe was also depicted in the 2000 movie Possessed and a 1997 documentary In The Grip of Evil.   Since then, the exorcism fervor the book and movie helped inspire has taken on a life of its own, driven by countless other films and television shows that have helped drive belief in demonic possession.

As for Ronald Hunkeler, the role that he had played in the entire exorcism phenomenon continued to haunt him for the rest of his life.   According to one source close to Hunkeler,  his long career at NASA was marked by a continuing fear that his colleagues would discover his past.   While all published accounts gave his name as either "Ronald Doe" or "Robert Mannheim,"  his true identity was well known in many circles and the prospect of some enterprising journalist revealing the truth was never far from his mind. “On Halloween, we always left the house because he figured someone would come to his residence and know where he lived and never let him have peace,” the unnamed source said.  “He had a terrible life from worry, worry, worry.”  Even shortly before Hunkeler's death, a priest arrived unexpectedly to administer the last rites.   Whether this was related to his long-ago history is unknown.

It hardly seems to matter that many of the reported details of the Hunkeler possession case seem either made up or exaggerated, as the recent Skeptical Enquirer article points out.   The original Exorcist movie (and its planned remake) are likely to shape the dialogue surrounding demonic possession and exorcism for years to come.   Sadly enough, the devil is in the details.

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Family in India Digs up Dead Child after Occultist Promises to Bring Him Back to Life

After an unnamed nine-year-old boy died of a viral infection earlier this year, his family dug up his grave in the hope of restoring him to life.

Soon after the boy's death, his family in the Indian province of Uttar Pradesh was contacted by a woman who claimed that she knew someone who could restore him to life by witchcraft.  After consenting to the rituals to be used, the family then dug up the child's body from the cemetery near the village of  Ganeshpur and sent it to the still-unnamed occultist.  According to reports, the occultist performed the promised rituals over five days. When the resurrection attempt failed, family members assaulted the occultist and took a video of them tearing off his clothes. 

After the video went viral on social media, local police began investigating the case.    According to India.com, the occultist has been charged was charged under different sections of the Indian Penal Code. This includes "defacing the graves" and "instilling dread in the people."  Half a dozen of the child's relatives have also been charged for the assault on the occultist and "spreading superstitious beliefs.".  Most of the case details, including when the child died and when the body was disinterred, still haven't been made public.

Belief in the supernatural, and the power of many occultists, remains common in India's rural regions.  This includes going to occultists for magical cures rather than seeking out medical help.  A reported human sacrifice occurred in India's Assam province a month ago as part of an occult ceremony to heal a priest's mysterious illness.  The victim's father and a temple priest have since been detained over the killing.  

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Eight-Year-Old Boy Charged with Blasphemy in Pakistan

An eight-year-old Hindu boy has been formally charged with violating Pakistan's controversial blasphemy laws over an incident occurring at a madrassa in Pakistan's Punjab province.  The boy's arrest occurred in late July of this year when a teacher at the madrassa laid a complaint after the boy allegedly urinated on a carpet in the madrassa's library.  Police promptly arrested the boy and charged him with blasphemy, holding him in prison for a week before a court granted him bail on August 4. 

Following the boy's release, protesters desecrated the Siddhi Vinayak Temple in Bhong village where the boy lived.   He and his family have since gone into hiding as have numerous other Hindu families living in the area.  Paramilitary troops have since been deployed to the area to diffuse the situation and prevent further unrest. To date,  50 people have been arrested for vandalizing the Hindu temple and 100 more are still being investigated.  

Muslim-Hindu tensions remain high this year with more than a dozen attacks on Hindu temples in the past twelve months.  Responding to international outrage over the latest incident, Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan has called for the arrest of all those involved as well as pledging that the Pakistani government will restore the temple.  As for the still-unnamed boy, the charges have been dropped following pressure from media and human rights groups.  Though Hafiz Tahir Mehmood Ashrafi, the Special Representative to the Prime Minister on Religious Harmony and the Middle East, initially denied media reports, he has since called for an investigation of the police officers who laid the original charges.

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Becoming the King of the World

Whatever else you can say about the Reverend Homer Aubrey Tomlinson, he was definitely a showman.   As for his other achievements, real and self-proclaimed, you will have to decide that for yourself...

Born in 1892 in Westfield, Indiana, he was the oldest son. He presumed heir of Ambrose Jessup Tomlinson, the Church of God of Prophecy, one of the earliest Pentecostal denominations.     Despite an early career in an advertising agency, Homer joined his father's ministry in 1922, reportedly after a life-changing experience when he was "almost struck by lightning."    Along with establishing a congregation in Jamaica, New York, and evangelizing across the Northeast, Homer Tomlinson became well-known for grandiose stunts.   This included conducting the world's first parachute wedding at the New York World's Fair.   Along with Tomlinson, the bride and groom, best man, maid of honour, and four musicians all took part in the ceremony after jumping out of a plane together.  

Possibly due to his controversial antics, Homer Tomlinson was passed over as his father's successor following Ambrose's death in 1943.   The church elders claimed to have received a message in tongues to "bring forth the younger son," and Homer was left out in the cold when his legal battle to control the church failed.   Bouncing back from this disappointment,  Homer Tomlinson found his own denomination, the Church of God, based in New York City.  

With his usual flair for self-publicity (did I mention he was a former ad-man?),  Homer announced that his mission was to usher in the Kingdom of God by getting church members elected to public office.   With little hope of securing a Democratic or Republican nomination as a presidential candidate,  he decided to found his own political party instead.    The platform for the Theocratic party he founded in 1952 was straightforward enough:   unification of church and state, abolishing taxation in favour of tithing and creating two new cabinet posts, a secretary of righteousness and a secretary of the Holy Bible.   Despite running for president in 1952, 1960, 1964, and 1968, his support was never solid.  Best estimates suggest that he only got 20 votes in 1964 alone. 

Despite the failure of his presidential ambitions, Homer Tomlinson moved on to more grandiose goals.   After a 1954 convention of his Church of God reportedly acclaimed him as "almost a new Messiah," he declared himself King of the World.    Traveling to more than 100 countries, he staged numerous coronation ceremonies to proclaim his royal status.  With his gold-plated crown, his blue silk robes, an inflatable globe that he held in his hands,  a 15-inch flag featuring the "scepter of righteousness," and a cheap folding chair which served as his surrogate "Throne of David," Tomlinson's coronation ceremonies were certainly picturesque, if nothing else.  

Though most of these ceremonies took place at local airports, one of them being held in Moscow's Red Square to the bemusement of the Soviet government (Pravda referred to it as a publicity stunt by "an American actor").    He later claimed that his 1958 Red Square coronation "melted the Iron Curtain" and fostered peace (not that anyone else noted an easing of Cold War tensions afterward).   In the years following his first coronations as King of All The Nations of Men, he stated: "I crowned myself in every state, and at 67 colleges, and I visited 101 nations and crowned myself King in everyone, including Russia in Red Square, in Moscow on July 12, 1958.  Crowds greeted me everywhere."    Homer insisted that his traveling to different countries helped usher in the Kingdom of God by preventing revolutions, encouraging world peace, and ending droughts.

As part of his grandiose plan to reshape the world, Homer planned to move the seat of the United Nations to Jerusalem, where preachers would replace its ambassadors.   Not only would Jerusalem become the world's centre of finance and culture, any nation that waged war would be struck by drought and plague.   The Ten Commandments would be formally enacted into law everywhere, and taxation would be replaced by tithing.   All laws everywhere would be replaced by his own "48 laws," which, among other things, banned liquor and tobacco, provided equality for all, offered forgiveness for repentant criminals, and promoted love. 

The actual size of Homer Tomlinson's congregation, all of whom he dubbed "saints," was always hard to calculate, but he confidently placed it at 75,000 with 600 ministers under his control.    At other times, he assumed that all the world's Pentecostalists were under his dominion (though they likely didn't share this opinion).   As for his actual congregation, many followers were apparently dissatisfied with his leadership. One of them, Grady R. Kent, formed a separate denomination, Church of All Nations in 1957.  

When he wasn't traveling, Homer ran his worldwide empire from the two-story frame house in Queen's Village in New York City, where he had lived since 1920.   Homer Tomlinson's "mission" continued right up to his death in 1968.  According to an obituary in the New York Times,  he died quietly in a Manhattan hospital after a long illness.   Described as the "portly, pink-faced, cheery leader of the Church of God," he was survived by his wife Marie, whom he had met in an Aimee Temple McPherson tent in 1919.   Along with their two sons, he was also survived by their six grandchildren.   He is buried in Long Island cemetery. 

Though the Church of God still exists, the church website rather downplays the eccentric life of Bishop Tomlinson.   After his death, he was succeeded by Voy M. Bullen, who then moved the church to Huntsville, Alabama, to be closer to the centre of the movement.    While Tomlinson's church has undergone various moves and schisms since his death, the Church of God is reported to have over 70,000 followers at present, but this figure is considered to be likely inflated.  

So, was Homer Tomlinson prone to grandiose delusions, or was his "King of the World" campaign nothing more than an elaborate publicity stunt?   While his various "coronations" had no actual validity, they certainly kept him in the public eye.   Stirring up controversy ensured that Homer A. Tomlinson had greater name recognition than the other competing denominations, even if he picked up a reputation for being a crackpot along the way. 

And, perhaps that was enough for him.

 

Inspiring The Exorcist

Decades after "The Exorcist" premiered in 1973 continues to thrill audiences the world over.  Based on a book by William Peter Blatty, the movie showed the demonic possession of a twelve-year-old girl in a performance that made Linda Blair a horror icon.   But what about the 1949  possession case in St. Lou, MO, that reportedly inspired it?  And what can we say about that case today?

All that we know about the boy at the centre of that case is that his true name remains anonymous, although he was assigned the pseudonym of "Roland Doe" by the Catholic Church (later sources changed the name to "Robbie Mannheim").    Doe, who was thirteen years old in 1949 when the alleged exorcism occurred, was an only child who was born into a German Lutheran family and raised in Maryland.   Later moving with his family to St. Louis, supernatural activity began shortly after the death of a favourite aunt who had been a spiritualist.   Allegedly, she had introduced him to the supernatural along with how to use an Ouija board. 

According to various reports, unexplained occurrences began in the house in which "Robbie" and his family lived.   This included moving furniture, strange noises, and a picture of Jesus rattling on the walls.   When the frightened family turned to their Lutheran pastor for help,  Robbie was examined by clerics and psychiatrists who could find no explanation for what was happening. 

After Robbie spent an evening at the pastor's house, various occurrences led the pastor to conclude that "evil was at work" and arranged for a Lutheran rite of exorcism to be carried out.    According to most accounts, Robbie underwent an Anglican exorcism. When that failed, the case was referred to Reverend Edward Hughes, a Catholic priest, who carried out an exorcism at Georgetown Hospital near Washington, D.C.    During that exorcism, Robbie injured the priest and required him to receive stitches.   The ritual was then stopped, and he was sent home to his family.   

In desperation over Robbie's worsening problems, his family took him to St. Louis University, where two Jesuit priests examined him.   According to the eyewitness accounts still available, Robbie showed many of the classic signs of possession, including aversion to holy symbols,  flying objects, and Robbie speaking in a guttural voice.   After receiving permission from the Archbishop, the Reverend William Bowden and two other priests conducted the exorcism in the psychiatric wing of Alexian Brothers Hospital in St. Louis.    In a diary which Reverend Bowden kept of the exorcism, he reported that words such as "evil" and "hell" erupted on Robbie's skin, and he broke the nose of one of the priests during his violent thrashing.   When the exorcism was finally complete, witnesses reported a loud noise in the hospital.

Robbie went on to have a normal life and reportedly has no memory of the exorcism.  As they reported afterward, all of the priests in attendance were consistent in their belief that it was an actual possession.   Along with inspiring William Blatty's book and the movie of the same name, the case of Robbie Doe/Mannheim was also depicted in the 2000 movie Possessed and a 1997 documentary In The Grip of Evil.   While Robbie himself has never gone public with his experiences, several of the priests who took part in the exorcism, including Father Walter Halloran, insisted that the possession was genuine.

But skeptics examining the various statements made afterward noted key discrepancies that cast doubt on the eyewitness accounts.   In an investigative piece for Strange magazine published in 1997, journalist Mark Opsasnick examined the diary that had been reportedly kept by the lead priest carrying out the exorcism.   He also interviewed Father Halloran and determined that many of the statements attributed to him about the exorcism had been exaggerated by previous reporters seeking to play up the sensational aspects of the story.    The claim that Mannheim had spoken in tongues during his possession was also dismissed by Father Halloran, along with the words that had "miraculously" appeared on his skin.   All of the "supernatural" phenomena reported by eyewitnesses could have been faked by Mannheim himself, possibly as a way of getting attention.   In his own investigation of the Mannheim case, skeptical investigator Joe Nickell largely confirmed the conclusions raised by Opsasnick.

Without being able to interview Robbie directly, there is no way to determine whether he was behind what occurred in 1949.   Despite speculation that mental illness may have played a role in the case, no evidence that he suffered from any of the different diagnoses attributed to him over the years (including Tourette's syndrome,  obsessive-compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia) has ever surfaced.   What evidence there is focuses on eyewitness testimony and all-too fallible memory. 

In the decades since the St. Louis exorcism,  the cultural impact resulting from the events of 1949 has been profound.   Along with The Exorcist, virtually every movie featuring exorcisms has drawn on the long-ago case, either directly or indirectly.   Regularly invoked as proof that demonic possession exists, the case may also have inspired "copycat" possession cases, including the 1978 exorcism-related death of Anneliese Michel, which led to the conviction of the 23-year old woman's parents and the two priests who conducted the exorcism. 

While no clear link was ever proven, there seems little doubt that reports of demonic possession rose sharply in the years following the release of the 1973 movie and that exorcism continues to have strange popularity.    Exorcists are being trained in increasing numbers, and the demand for their services has risen as well.    Almost inevitably, deaths resulting from exorcism continue to be reported but seem not to have dampened people's enthusiasm for believing themselves to be possessed.  

Until "Robbie Doe/Manheim" comes forward or until more reliable evidence surfaces, the mystery surrounding the St. Louis exorcism case will continue to be invoked by the true believers as "proof" that the Devil is at work in the world.   What that might mean for future exorcism cases is anybody's guess.

Storming the Ark

Predicting the end of the world is never easy.

At least, that's what Johannes Stoeffler quickly came to realize.  Born in 1452 in which is now Germany, Stoeffler excelled as a scholar and later established himself as the parish priest for his native town of Justingen.   In addition to his religious duties, Stoeffler became famous for his learning in such diverse fields as astronomy, mathematics and astrology as well as designing and constructing complex astronomical instruments, clocks, and orreries.  He also wrote a manual on the construction and use of the astrolabe and corresponded regularly with some of the leading intellectuals of the 15th century. 

And so, when Stoeffler confidently predicted in 1499 that a universal flood would cover the world on February 24, 1524, people paid attention.   He based this prediction on the various planetary conjunctions that would happen in that year.  While only six planets were known at the time, almost all of them (including the sun) would be in conjunction in the constellation of Pisces and, given that this was the sign of the fish,  it surely meant that the world would be drowned.  While he was hardly the only doomsday prophet of his time, he was certainly the most prominent.  By 1507, Stoeffler occupied the first-ever chair of astronomy and mathematics at the University of Tubingen and was eventually elected rector in 1522. 

As the dreaded prophecy date drew closer, more and more people heard about the prediction.  Not only was Stoeffler a respected academic, but he was also an advisor to royalty which made him a credible source.  More than one hundred pamphlets were written about the impending catastrophe and the panic set in.  Property in valleys, along river banks, or on the sea coastline was sold at a loss (the fact that there were still willing buyers didn't seem to reassure anyone).  Although some skeptics suggested that the planetary conjunction wouldn't be as fatal as predicted,  the fear of impending doom still persisted.  English astrologers, not wanting to be upstaged by their European counterparts, announced that the universal deluge would occur on February 1, 1524 (and the first rainfall would occur in London, of course). 

While 1524 proved to be an unusually dry year, the preparations for a flood continued.  In London, true believers built an elevated fortress at the Priory Church of St. Bartholomew the Great and equipped it with two months worth of provisions. On February 1, more than twenty-thousand Londoners abandoned their homes and gathered on surrounding hillsides to wait for the rain to come.   When the predicted universal deluge proved to be a wash (sorry, couldn't resist), everyone just went home again.  To cover their embarrassment, English astrologers announced that their calculations were out by one hundred years and that February 1, 1624 was the true date for the Apocalypse.

In continental Europe, meanwhile, February 24 drew closer and preparations continued despite the debacle in England.  Boat builders became rich as landowners and nobles prepared emergency arks for their own survival.  Local merchants also played up the Apocalypse angle by stocking their shelves with a variety of emergency supplies and prepared to do brisk business.  River banks across Europe were dotted with new boats laden with all the food and water they could safely carry.

Of the various known arks to be built, the most ambitious was by a German count named von Iggleheim who constructed a luxury, three-story ark for his friends and family.   At the crack of dawn on February 24, von Iggleheim boarded his ark and had his servants drag assorted supplies up the gangplank.   Crowds had gathered, mostly out of curiosity, although some of them were having fun at von Iggleheim's expense.  The jeering stopped when the rain started however.  While it wasn't a particularly impressive rainstorm as such, it was enough to panic the crowd.  Hundreds were killed in the stampede that followed and then they turned their attention to von Iggleheim's ark and the other ships nearby. When von Iggleheim refused to allow any of them aboard, he was dragged off his ship and stoned to death by the crowd.   The panic only ended when the rain stopped (though the corpses still remained).

When 1524 eventually proved to be one of the driest years on record, Johannes Stoeffler shamefacedly revised his calculations and concluded that the Great Flood would come in 1528.  This time aro0und though, nobody really took notice and the new date passed without incident.  He died in 1531 (of plague, not drowning) and is mainly remembered for his accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics.  

Stoeffler's example hardly stopped new predictions of apocalypse however.    During the 17th century,  astrologer and Rosicrucian Johann Jacob Zimmerman became famous for announcing that the Apocalypse would occur in the fall of 1694 and that the Pennsylvania wilderness would be the best place to observe the world's end.  With forty fellow enthusiasts, he made arrangements with the Governor of Pennsylvania to build a small settlement which he named the "Society of the Women of the Wilderness" (despite the fact that most of his followers were men).  The proposed settlement would allow Zimmerman's followers to live a utopian existence of quiet contemplation while waiting for the end.  Sadly, Zimmerman died unexpectedly before he could accompany his supporters as they left Rotterdam.  The planned community went ahead under the leadership of Zimmerman's second-in-command, Johannes Kelpius.    The settlement, near what is now Wissahickon Creek, Pennsylvania, is still the stuff of local legend and managed to survive the non-ending of the world in 1694.  The settlement only dissolved with Kelpius' death fourteen years later.  

Although you would think that people would have become leery of apocalyptic prophecies after a while, that never seems to happen.  Virtually every new generation seems to spawn another prophet of doom proclaiming the imminent end of the world.    Even Isaac Newton wrote a treatise offering his own estimation of when the world would end (it was published after his death).  Famous prophets of the 18th and 19th century included such notables as  Joanna Southcott with her box of prophecies and  Mary Bateman with her Hen of Doom.  Well into the 20th century, apocalyptic prophecies continued to be announced linked to spirit messages and/or celestial signs.  Now that the dreaded 2012 date has come and gone, it is only a matter of time until yet another apocalypse craze comes along.

 

The Xhosa Prophecy

How dangerous can a prophecy be?  And what happens to a prophet who turns out to be wrong?  The story of Nongqawuse and the prophecy that led to the deaths of thousands of her fellow Xhosa in the mid-19^th century is an important chapter in the history of skepticism despite being so little known outside of South Africa.

Even in the early days of British colonialism in southern Africa, the various tribes that made up the Xhosa nation were one of the largest ethnic groups in what would eventually become the Eastern Cape Province of the Republic of South Africa.   Though apartheid policies still lay in the future, the Xhosa were largely shut out of most businesses and depended on their cattle herds and crops for food and trade.  Despite a major outbreak of cattle lung sickness that had struck the Xhosa cattle herds between 1855 and 1856, the economic disaster that would devastate Xhosa society came from another direction entirely.

According to historical records, the Xhosa girl at the centre of the crisis that would follow is believed to have been born in 1840.   After losing both of her parents at an early age, Nongqawuse was raised by her uncle , Mhlakaza, a prominent spiritualist, and her childhood appeared otherwise normal .   

Everything changed in the spring of 1856 when Nongqawuse and her friend Nombada went to fetch water from a nearby river.    After returning,  the fifteen-year old Nongqawuse told her uncle that she had met the spirits of two of her ancestors who were using her to relay an important prophecy to her people.   The prophecy instructed them to destroy their crops and kill their cattle as a sacrifice to the ancestors who would rise up and drive all the white settlers from the sea.    After the settlers were gone, the sun would turn red and a new golden age would come for the Xhosa.  

There was already racial tension brewing among the Xhosa, who blamed the British for the lung infections that kept decimating their herds.   At the same time,  their food crops had been hit by a new infection that killed the corn before it ripened.  Believing the infections were caused by witchcraft,  the Xhosa turned to traditional remedies as a way of saving themselves.    Prophets and healers offering miraculous cures became commonplace although none of them would have the impact of  Nongqawuse and her prophecies.  

Whatever her reason for making the prophecy (and who inspired her to make it),  Nongqawuse’s strange message likely would not have gone much further without her uncle’s endorsement.   While the two girls were ridiculed at first, they went back a few days later and claimed to have received the same message.  When her uncle went with them, he reportedly saw nothing though his niece relayed the message from the spirits to him.    Convinced that his niece’s message was genuine, Mhlakaza dedicated himself to the prophecy and even began killing his own cattle.  

Eventually, he managed to persuade the local chief, Sarili ka Hintsa, about the coming golden age.   The prospect of eliminating the white settlers who were already taking all the best land was definitely appealing and Mhlakaza’s reputation helped as well.    There was also considerable anger about the recent defeat that the Xhosa had experienced during a frontier war that had ended just three years earlier.    Along with that humiliating defeat, the growing culture clash between the European settlers and the Xhosa contributed to a tense situation.  Sarili decided to set an example for his people by killing his own cattle and destroying his crops.  Though likely horrified at the potential for disaster, his subjects had little choice but to follow that example.  

And so, in 1856, the Great Cattle Killing began.   During the thirteen months that followed, hundreds of thousands of cattle were killed and all the crops were burnt.    Though approximately 15% of the 70,000 Xhosa living in the Eastern Cape at the time refused to take part, they were largely condemned by the ones who did.   A common nickname attached to them was amagogotoya (stingy ones).   Nongqawuse continued hearing the “voices” of the ancestors telling her that all of the cattle needed to be destroyed since they were tainted by the Europeans.   As for the British settlers themselves, they watched the cattle killing helplessly (and some historians suggest that they quietly encouraged it).   Though one prominent missionary, Charles Brownlee, tried to counter Nongqawuse’s prophecy, he was largely ignored.

Acting as his niece’s spokesman, Mhlakaza took the bold step of providing a specific date for when the prophecy would be fulfilled (Nongqawuse  had been carefully vague up to that time).   According to Mhlakaza,  the ancestors’ promise would be fulfilled on the first day of the full moon.  He assured them that the sun would turn red and the believers would be rewarded for their faith.   Not only would all the cattle be replaced by new cattle more beautiful than ever, but new fields of crops ready to harvest would appear as well.   The dead warriors would all come back to life and a new era of youth and beauty would begin. 

When the full moon came and went with the sun being the same colour as ever,   Mhlakaza managed to provide a new date for the prophecy, this time on the first day of the new moon.    To ensure that people believed in the prophecy, Mhlakaza even organized demonstrations where he would point out to the sea and show them the heads of the New People bobbing out of the water (he was the only one who could hear their message).   Some believers even claimed to hear the invisible cattle and goats.  As each date failed, he and Nongqawuse tried to place the blame on the nonbelievers who had refused to destroy their cattle and crops.   Finally, after repeated failures,  Mhlakaza set a final date of February 18, 1857 when the ancestors would definitely appear. 

After that date came and went,  Sarili and his subjects had completely run out of patience though the Xhosa who had destroyed their cattle and crops had much bigger problems by then.   With the loss of their main source of food,  they had no way of avoiding mass starvation.   For all that Sarili and Mhlakaza shared most of the blame for the coming catastrophe, Sarili insisted on laying all the blame on Nongqawuse.  

Knowing that she would likely be killed if she remained, Nongqawuse fled to the British for safety and they placed her in protective custody on Robben Island.  She would stay there for years before being quietly released.  In the meantime,  mass starvation set in among the Xhosa with over 40,000 deaths and thousands more being forced to leave their ancestral lands to find work in the nearby Cape Colony.   According to some accounts, thousands of vultures could be seen overhead as they were drawn to the countless human and animal corpses.   There were also documented cases of some Xhosa turning to cannibalism.

The British colony governor,  Sir George Grey, took full advantage of the mass starvation.  Though he had warned Sarili against the cattle killing and also provided food to the starving Xhosa afterward, it was hardly enough to avoid the mass starvation that would last for years.   As the refugees began flooding into the Colony, Grey ordered the colonists not to offer any help to the starving Xhosa unless they agreed to sign binding labour contracts.   He also imprisoned many of the Xhosa chiefs on the pretext that they were planning war against the colonists.    The total population of Xhosa living in the Eastern Cape dropped and the Governor eventually seized much of their land to be used by European settlers.  More than 600,000 acres of land fell into British hands as a result of Grey’s actions. 

While Nongqawuse  survived,  her uncle was one of the casualties and much of the blame for what happened fell on her.    No reliable details of her later life are available but she was believed to have changed her name after her release from custody and moved far away from the village where she had lived to avoid being killed.   She is believed to have died in 1898 though details about her later life are scarce.  

The Xhosa prophecy and the resulting famine is one of the most horrifying examples of mass hysteria in the past two centuries.  It is also a graphic example of the devastating power of belief when it is allowed to override common sense.

Accused Witch Burned Alive in South Africa

Four people are currently in custody in the South African village of Mbuzini after an 80-year-old woman was hacked with a hoe and subsequently burned alive in her house for being a suspected witch.  

The woman, Dumisile Mahlangu  had been living alone since her husband's death and with no adult children in the area, was accused of witchcraft following allegations that she had been caught "sprinkling something" in a neighbour's yard last Saturday. After word spread that "a witch had been caught", a mob forcibly took the accused witch back to her house where she was repeatedly struck with a hoe.   She was then locked in her house which was then set on fire leaving her to burn to death inside.

In a statement released by police spokesperson Brigadier Leonard Hlathi, where was no proof that the old woman was guilty of any wrongdoing  and that eyewitnesses should have called the police to prevent mob action.   Police have since arrested four people, aged 22 to 44, including the owners of the house that the accused witch was supposedly cursing.   The investigation is still underway and other arrests are also expected in future.    he arrested suspects have been charged with murder and arson and will appear in the Tonga magistrate's court next week.

Mpumalanga Police Commissioner Lieutenant General Mondli Zuma has publicly stated that it is "disheartening that the elderly community often suffered such accusations from sections of the society."   Along with warning villagers that they would be prosecuted over any other witch killings, he also directed police to  ensure that those people arrested  for these crimes face the full might of the law.

As for the villagers themselves, they have already refused to allow Mahlangu to be buried in their village and accused police of protecting witches.  “This woman have been bewitching us here... we caught her in the act. We don't want her to be buried in our village. Tomorrow (Tuesday) we will be protesting outside the court because they arrested people who saved the community from the witch,” said a community member when talking to the press and who who asked not to be named.

Belief in witchcraft remains strong in many parts of Africa, including South Aftrica's Mpumalanga province where  Mbuzini is located.    Elderly villagers living alone are often accused of being responsible for any calamity that occurs though accusations of witchcraft can be made against people of all ages, including children, albinos, the disabled, and the mentally ill.   Children, especially orphans, remain particularly vulnerable and may be subjected to violent exorcism rituals to "purge" them of the evil spirits possessing them.   Witchcraft accusation are also becoming increasingly common in immigrant communities due to the influence of evangelical movements.

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